Research Paper
Conseling
zeinab shariati; atousa Kalantar hormozi; Asieh Shariatmadar; Ebrahim Naeimi
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
The development of professional identity is a central aspect of counselor education and one of the major indicators of professional maturity. For novice counselors, who are in the early stages of their careers, this process entails a complex interplay between personal ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
The development of professional identity is a central aspect of counselor education and one of the major indicators of professional maturity. For novice counselors, who are in the early stages of their careers, this process entails a complex interplay between personal growth, academic preparation, and the practical demands of real-world counseling. Professional identity encompasses internalized values, attitudes, and behaviors that define one’s belonging to a profession and influence ethical conduct and professional decisions.
During the initial years of practice, novice counselors frequently encounter discrepancies between the theoretical ideals emphasized in their academic training and the realities of professional practice. These discrepancies manifest as sources of tension, uncertainty, and growth struggles. While the literature in counseling has addressed various developmental models and supervision frameworks (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003; Moss, Gibson & Dollarhide, 2011), relatively little is known about how new counselors in Iranian cultural and organizational contexts experience the challenges and facilitators that shape their professional identity development.
In Iran, where the counseling profession is still in a process of institutional consolidation, understanding how emerging professionals develop a professional sense of “who I am as a counselor” is of significant scholarly and practical value. Identifying both obstacles and supportive factors can help universities, supervisors, and policymaking bodies design better developmental and training environments for novice counselors.
The present qualitative research therefore aimed to explore the challenges and facilitators influencing the development of professional identity among novice counselors employed in counseling and psychology centers in Tehran during the year 2023–2024 (1402 SH). Using a grounded theory approach, this study sought to develop an empirically grounded model of how these professionals perceive, experience, and make sense of their professional growth journey.
Methodology
This study adopted a qualitative research design using the grounded theory method developed by Strauss and Corbin (2014), as it allows researchers to generate theoretical understanding directly from participants’ lived experiences rather than from pre‑existing hypotheses.
- Participants
The study population consisted of novice counselors currently working in counseling and psychology centers in Tehran. Fourteen participants were selected through purposeful criterion sampling combined with the snowball sampling technique, ensuring that only those meeting specific inclusion criteria were involved. Participants were doctoral graduates in counseling, had up to two years of professional experience, and were actively practicing in Tehran-area counseling centers. All participants provided informed consent, and their anonymity was safeguarded. The principle of data saturation determined the sample size, which was reached after 14 interviews.
- Data Collection
Data were collected through semi‑structured interviews designed to encourage deep reflection. Each interview lasted approximately 40 minutes. Initial guiding questions focused on participants’ perceptions of their professional identity, the kinds of challenges they had faced, and the strategies or supports that facilitated their professional development. Sample guiding questions included: “How do you perceive your professional identity as a novice counselor?”; “What challenges have you encountered in developing your professional identity?”; and “What factors have helped you grow or feel more professional in your career?”
The interviews were recorded (with permission), transcribed verbatim, and analyzed immediately after completion to ensure continuous comparison and refinement of emerging concepts.
- Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using constant comparative analysis, consisting of two primary coding stages:
Open Coding: data were broken into discrete meaning units, assigned conceptual labels, and grouped into initial categories.
Axial Coding: relationships between categories were examined, leading to the identification of core categories that explained the dynamics of professional identity growth.
Throughout the analysis, the researchers combined inductive reasoning (letting concepts emerge from the data) with deductive validation (re‑examining earlier interpretations across interviews).
Results
The process of coding yielded 72 open codes and 14 axial (central) categories, organized into two overarching dimensions: (1) challenges in professional identity formation and (2) facilitating factors that promote development.
- Challenges in Professional Identity Development
Institutional Challenges Related to the Profession: Many participants reported a lack of support from counseling centers, insufficient collaboration between institutions and novice counselors, job instability, and administrative ambiguity regarding standards and professional recognition. These institutional deficiencies hindered a secure professional start.
Functional Challenges Resulting from Lack of Experience: Participants highlighted difficulty in implementing theoretical knowledge, reliance on trial and error in practice, inflexibility in treatment planning, and uncertainty in managing clients effectively. Feelings of incompetence and anxiety about making mistakes pervaded early professional experiences.
Psychological Challenges at the Onset of Practice: Emotional vulnerability, self‑doubt, perfectionistic standards, and fear of disappointing clients or supervisors were reported widely. The transition from “student” to “professional” generated tension between the need for immediate competence and persistent feelings of inadequacy.
Self‑Evaluation Dependent on External Approval: Many novice counselors evaluated their success through external validation, such as client satisfaction or peer recognition. Dependence on others’ approval impeded the internalization of confidence and autonomy essential for professional identity consolidation.
- Facilitating Factors in Professional Identity Development
Guidance from Professors and Supervisors: Constructive feedback and mentorship offered direction, helping participants reinterpret experiences through reflection rather than judgment.
University‑Based Facilitators: The academic environment served as a stable reference system, linking theory to practice and instilling professional norms.
Foundational Professional Readiness: Foundational readiness, including ethical awareness, basic skills, and self‑discipline, strengthened confidence.
Interaction and Dialogue with Professional Peers: Peer support reduced isolation and encouraged shared problem‑solving.
Personal Growth Traits: Attributes like emotional resilience, empathy, and openness to feedback contributed to adaptive professional integration.
Learning from Client Experiences: Practical learning from client interactions led to professional maturity and authenticity.
Continuous Improvement of Skills and Knowledge: Lifelong learning was seen as both a duty and a motivator for identity consolidation.
Professional Experience as Catalyst: Each counseling session was perceived as a micro‑learning event, reinforcing confidence through action.
Commitment to Professional Maintenance and Ethics: Counselors viewed responsibility and professionalism as identity markers that sustain growth.
Application of Counseling in Personal Life: Integrating counseling values into personal relationships strengthened a consistent professional self‑concept.
Discussion
Analyzing both challenge and facilitation patterns reveals professional identity development as a transitional journey marked by instability, adaptation, and reconstruction. The early career stage is characterized by a fragility of professional self-definition, where institutional conditions and personal self‑concept interplay dynamically. The counselors’ reliance on external validation, combined with the scarcity of structured supervision in the Iranian context, amplifies role confusion and developmental stress.
However, the presence of mentors, academic affiliation, and a commitment to continuous self‑improvement emerge as key protective factors that mitigate professional uncertainty. This finding aligns with global studies (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003; Koçyiğit, 2020) that emphasize supervision, reflection, and experiential learning as key drivers of counselor identity growth.
Conclusion
This qualitative grounded theory study provides an in‑depth understanding of how novice counselors in Tehran experience and interpret the evolution of their professional identities. The findings reveal a dual process: while novices face institutional, functional, and psychological barriers that challenge their sense of professional adequacy, they also engage with powerful facilitators—mentorship, reflective learning, peer interaction, and ethical commitment—that sustain growth.
Acknowledgments
The researchers express their gratitude and appreciation to all participants in this study, who cooperated with willingness and patience throughout the process of deriving the results.
Keywords: Professional Identity, Counselor, Novice, Challenge, Facilitator.
Research Paper
Psychotherapy
REZA FARZI; Fatemeh Fayyaz; Maedeh sadat Sabetghalam Fard
Abstract
Extended Abstract:IntroductionMajor depressive disorder is one of the most prevalent mental disorders with a significant disease burden worldwide and in Iran. While common treatments such as cognitive-behavioral therapy are effective, they sometimes face issues of symptom relapse and cultural-religious ...
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Extended Abstract:IntroductionMajor depressive disorder is one of the most prevalent mental disorders with a significant disease burden worldwide and in Iran. While common treatments such as cognitive-behavioral therapy are effective, they sometimes face issues of symptom relapse and cultural-religious limitations in Muslim societies. Given the role of spirituality and religious beliefs as protective factors against depression, it is essential to design indigenous interventions aligned with Islamic culture. Fayyaz’s (2017) therapeutic model, by extracting six types of depression from the Quran, provides a etiology-oriented approach based on modifying fundamental beliefs. The present study was conducted with the aim of qualitatively examining the effectiveness of this model in improving a woman with major depressive disorder.Research QuestionWhat is the role of Quranic-based psychotherapy in the improvement process of a depressed individual, as investigated through a qualitative case study?Literature ReviewMajor depressive disorder is one of the most common mental disorders in the world (Kessler & Bromet, 2013) and was projected to be the second leading cause of disability by 2020 (Azizi et al., 2019). The World Health Organization (2017) and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2023) emphasize the high prevalence and heavy disease burden of this disorder. In Iran, some studies have reported a high prevalence of depression among clients of Tehran clinics (Eisa Morad, 2025). Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is considered the first-line treatment for depression due to its strong empirical support (Kovich et al., 2023), and its effectiveness has been confirmed in various studies (Ciharova et al., 2021; Windahl et al., 2020). However, some evidence suggests that the effects of CBT may not be sustained in the long term, and the rate of symptom relapse in some patients is significant (Friborg & Johnsen, 2017). This issue has led researchers to investigate complementary or alternative treatments.2.1. The Role of Culture and Religion in Understanding and Treating DepressionThe Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR, 2022) emphasizes the importance of cultural considerations in explaining disorders (Alarcón, 2002). Culture influences the expression of symptoms, coping mechanisms, and treatment-seeking tendencies (Sam & Moreira, 2002). Among cultural components, religious and spiritual beliefs hold a special place. Studies have shown that these beliefs can play a protective role against depression by reducing hopelessness and increasing meaning (Koenig, 2012; Worthington et al., 2011). Some research has shown a significant correlation between religion and reduced depressive symptoms (Larson & Larson, 2003; Sage, 2011).2.1.1. Research Related to Islamic-Quranic TherapiesStudies indicate that religiously integrated CBT can enhance efficacy for Muslim clients (Nawaz & Yousuf, 2025), and spiritual interventions can promote rapid improvement of symptoms (Hook, 2010; Sotillos, 2021). In Iran, research supports the benefits of spiritually-integrated approaches (Savadi et al., 2021; Farhush et al., 2022). A significant development in this area is the indigenous “Quranic-Based Model for Depression” developed by Fayyaz (2017). This model departs from a symptom-focused diagnostic approach, instead identifying six types of depression rooted in disruptions across six relational domains (self, God, others, etc.). Preliminary case studies and group trials in Iran have reported its effectiveness in reducing depressive symptoms (Bahrami Ehsan et al., 2021; Fayyaz & Sharifian, 2022; Fayyaz et al., 2020; Bouzhmehrani, 2018).MethodologyThe research method was a qualitative case study, utilizing a single-case baseline-intervention-follow-up design. The selected case was a 60-year-old married woman living in Tehran, with a bachelor's degree, who was a homemaker. She was selected through purposive sampling from women in Tehran meeting the criteria for major depressive disorder. She underwent 10 sessions of depression treatment with a Quranic approach. Research instruments included the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders (SCID), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), and a Quran-based Depression Scale; the individual's scores on these scales were examined in three stages: pre-test, post-test, and one-month follow-up.ConclusionThe results of the present study generally showed that Quranic-based psychotherapy reduced the symptoms of major depressive disorder; furthermore, the examination of findings showed that Beck depression scores in the pre-test, post-test, and one-month follow-up stages had a decreasing trend, indicating improvement in depressive symptoms that continued at least up to one month after the end of treatment. Qualitative evaluations of the client also indicated high satisfaction with the treatment, a stable mood, and positive emotions. A similar decreasing trend was observed in the total score of the Quran-based depression scale.Keywords: Clinical Depression, Spiritual-Religious Therapies, Quranic-Based Psychotherapy, Intervention, Case Study.
Research Paper
family counselling
masoumeh bagheri; marziyeh shahryari; mahmoud karamshahi
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
In contemporary times, marital adjustment has emerged as a widely used concept in studies of families and marriages. Marital adjustment is a multidimensional concept that illuminates various aspects of marriage and shows a process that unfolds throughout a couple’s ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
In contemporary times, marital adjustment has emerged as a widely used concept in studies of families and marriages. Marital adjustment is a multidimensional concept that illuminates various aspects of marriage and shows a process that unfolds throughout a couple’s life (Hashemi, Arefi, Kakirani, & Chehri, 2022) and is considered a predictor of marital happiness and well-being and is influenced by numerous individual and interpersonal factors (Bijani, Hashemi, & Saadati-Shamir, 2023). Marital instability, often a precursor to the collapse of marriage, refers to any tendency of couples toward divorce, encompassing both cognitive and behavioral states (Brown, Stykes, & Manning, 2006). It manifests when couples contemplate divorce or take actions that may end the marriage (Faraji, Sanaei, & Namvar, 2019). The National Civil Registration Organization has announced that the average duration of marriage before the first divorce in 2020 was 10 years (National Civil Registration Organization, 2020).
Research Question
This study was guided by the following research question: What are the hidden factors contributing to the process of marital collapse among couples in the city of Ilam?
Literature Review
A review of the research conducted in American contexts shows that the evolution in gender beliefs (self-awareness, autonomy, and success) changed the way people think about happiness, love, and decisions about marriage and divorce (Cavanagh, 2020). There has also been an emphasis on the similarity and compatibility of personality traits in marriage, acceptance of gender role shifts, similarity and homogeneity of cognitive, behavioral and emotional patterns, and training in communication skills (Ahangar, Borjali, & Dawai, 2025).
Methodology
This was a qualitative study utilizing a grounded theory approach. In order to deeply identify the hidden aspects of the problem, the researcher selected 24 couples at risk of divorce through theoretical purposive sampling, collecting first-hand data from their lived experiences via in-depth interviews. Data were collected through in-depth interviews. After reaching theoretical saturation, the data from the interview transcripts were analyzed.
Results
The results of the study show that "marital breakdown indicators" in cognitive, behavioral, emotional and temporal dimensions (marital duration) are affected by "causal conditions": surface knowledge, moral and behavioral deviation, a coercive approach by couples, weak problem-solving skills, and dissimilarity of spouses. In the "contextual" dimension, the findings show that the breakdown of marriage is affected by structural divergence, generational gap, imbalance of the transition period, transformation of roles and values, and incomplete socialization of couples. In the "strategies" dimension of the breakdown of marriage, the role of silence and tolerance, feelings of inferiority and confrontation, violence and revenge, and tendency to divorce can be mentioned. As a result, the "consequences" of this breakdown include an intensification of feelings of inferiority and frustration, transformation and ineffectiveness of family values, identity crisis, and moral insecurity.
Discussion
In accordance with the findings of the research and from the point of view of couples at risk of divorce, the solutions to overcome the breakdown of marriage include: "Strengthening culture-building and awareness-raising centers" as structural and fundamental conditions. This involves providing grounds for preventing marital instability by focusing on issues such as life management training, developing a culture of equal marriage, training in dialogue between couples without the interference of others, and the possibility of moral recognition of couples before marriage.
Also, from the perspective of couples, "improving marital patterns and skills" includes behavioral and verbal honesty, continuous premarital counseling, moderation in mutual trust between couples, and mutual love as the basis for marital durability. From the perspective of the studied stakeholders, attention has been paid to "strengthening supervision and treatment" in counseling as a necessity, having mental and physical health as a prerequisite for marriage, medical tests necessary for marriage, and improving the efficiency of counseling centers. These mechanisms can be strengthened through continuous pre- and post-marital training of couples in counseling centers and by developing and strengthening the efficiency of these centers.
Conclusion
From the perspective of couples, the most important factors for marital breakdown are: "structural divergence", "generation gap", "imbalance in the transition period", and "transformation of roles and values".
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank and appreciate all those who collaborated in this research.
Keywords: Marital Instability, Couples, Grounded Theory, Ilam.
Research Paper
Consulting research based on Iranian Islamic culture
shahrzad esfandiary; Masoud Janbozorgi
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Stress is an inevitable part of human life and is defined as “the perception of a distressing event—whether physical, mental, or emotional—that threatens an individual’s psychophysiological well-being” (Braun, Foreyt & Johnston, ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Stress is an inevitable part of human life and is defined as “the perception of a distressing event—whether physical, mental, or emotional—that threatens an individual’s psychophysiological well-being” (Braun, Foreyt & Johnston, 2016). Coping has been defined as “the conscious skills, strategies, and mechanisms individuals employ to manage, resolve, master, reduce, or tolerate stressful situations” (Krägeloh, Chai, Shepherd & Billington, 2012). Many individuals turn to religion as a resource in their attempts to understand and cope with the most challenging moments of their lives (Schuster, Stein, Jaycox, Marshall, Elliott, & Berry, 2001). Prayer, as one of the most significant practical dimensions of religion, has drawn considerable attention in the context of stress management.
The luminous supplications of al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya comprise a collection of profound moral and educational teachings and constitute one of the richest epistemic sources available for psychological studies. This distinguished work is known as the “Gospel of the Ahl al-Bayt,” the “Psalms of the Family of Muhammad,” and the “Sister of the Qur’an” (Aqabozorg Tehrani, 1994-1995/1415 AH). The seventh supplication of the Ṣaḥīfa has attracted the attention of numerous researchers, particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic as a global traumatic crisis. The thematic content of this prayer is well-suited for formulating a practical model of spiritual/religious coping applicable to various disasters that precipitate psychological crises.
Accordingly, the present study seeks to answer the following question: Can this supplication serve as a foundation for designing and developing a spiritually-grounded, God-centered coping model to support individuals in unexpected and difficult circumstances? Moreover, how might such a model assist individuals across different psychological domains in channeling stressful situations toward pathways of health, balance, and post-traumatic growth?
Literature Review
The psychological dimensions of prayer and the al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya have been the focus of considerable scholarly attention. For instance, some studies drawing on religious and spiritual concepts have examined the effects of prayer and identified components and strategies for spiritual coping. Illueca and Doolittle (2020), in their research on the impact of prayer on pain, noted the role of the supplications in the al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya in reducing suffering. In another study, LeRoux and Lotter (2021), considering Judeo-Christian beliefs, introduced components of spiritual coping within the pastoral model of “Belief–Belonging–Behavior”.
Psychological investigations of supplications—and specifically the seventh supplication—have also emerged in Persian-language research. Using content analysis, some scholars have attempted to extract the core themes and concepts embedded in the supplications. Rahmani, Vojdanit, & Motamed (2023) identified three major themes: divine attributes (power and will), acknowledgment of the distress inherent in hardships, and petitioning God. A limited number of studies have also provided psychological analyses of the seventh supplication. Badri, Abdollahzadeh and Momeni (2022), drawing on the teachings of this supplication and focusing on the concept of tawakkul (trust in God) and its contribution to spiritual well-being, explored relevant psychological perspectives.
Methodology
This fundamental study employed a mixed-methods design with a sequential exploratory approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative procedures. The research was conducted in two stages: (1) thematic network analysis following Attride-Stirling’s approach and (2) a descriptive survey to evaluate the content validity of the extracted themes. The textual corpus consisted of the seventh supplication of the al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya, selected through purposive sampling for comprehensive analysis.
To enhance credibility, two researchers independently identified and coded themes over a nine-month period, with iterative reviews conducted throughout. Confirmability was strengthened by comparing the extracted themes with authoritative commentaries and exegetical works on the al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya. Additionally, five experts in Islamic studies and psychology assessed the accuracy and relevance of the components. Content validity indices were 0.8 for the “Describing” and “Sweetness of Creation” components and 1.0 for all remaining components, indicating satisfactory content validity.
Conclusion
This study identified the components of positive spiritual coping through analysis of the seventh supplication of al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya, revealing a structured five-stage process: The first stage, “insight and confession before God”, involves recognizing personal limitations and emotional disturbances, reducing avoidance and initiating adaptive coping. The second stage, “spiritual–cognitive restructuring”, corrects distorted cognitions about God, the self, and existence, fostering deeper understanding and emotional regulation. The third stage, “spiritual connection,” enables an affective and existential relationship with God, alleviating anxiety. The fourth stage, “meaning discovery and comprehension”, provides interpretive frameworks such as positive perception and the experiential “sweetness of Creation,” supporting emotional and spiritual growth. The final stage, “purposeful return to life”, reflects the individual’s capacity to act with renewed direction and pursue growth following cognitive, emotional, and spiritual reconstruction. Overall, the findings suggest that the seventh supplication offers a comprehensive mechanism for navigating adversity and promoting psychological–spiritual resilience.
Keywords: positive spiritual coping, the seventh supplication of al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya, spiritual–cognitive restructuring, meaning of life
Research Paper
Psychology
soghra ebrahimighavam
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Human crises—such as war, forced displacement, political violence, or humanitarian disasters—generate intense emotional, psychological, and cognitive strain. Individuals are confronted with images of suffering, narratives of fear, and an overwhelming ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Human crises—such as war, forced displacement, political violence, or humanitarian disasters—generate intense emotional, psychological, and cognitive strain. Individuals are confronted with images of suffering, narratives of fear, and an overwhelming influx of information, often without having the tools to process these experiences meaningfully. In such contexts, reflective writing emerges as a powerful medium for psychological and intellectual engagement. It allows individuals to articulate their internal responses, critically analyze external events, and locate themselves within broader human experiences.
Despite the growing body of research on reflective and expressive writing, limited scholarship investigates its role during acute geopolitical crises. The 12-day Iran–Israel war provides a compelling case because of its intensity, rapid escalation, and global media attention. Observing how individuals used reflective writing during this period can deepen our understanding of how writing becomes a space for emotional regulation, meaning-making, and humanistic awareness.
This study explores how reflective writing functions as a mechanism for psychological processing and critical learning in the midst of human conflict. By examining lived reflections recorded during the war, the study seeks to answer the following research questions.
Research Questions
How does reflective writing support psychological processing during periods of acute geopolitical crisis?
In what ways does reflective writing facilitate critical learning and enhance awareness of broader humanistic issues?
What themes emerge in reflective writings produced during the 12-day Iran–Israel war?
How does reflective writing contribute to the development of empathy and moral positioning in response to human suffering?
Literature Review
Reflective writing has been studied in multiple fields, including psychology, education, trauma studies, and ethics. Scholars argue that reflective writing allows individuals to externalize internal experiences, create coherent narratives, and engage with complex emotions through language. Research by Pennebaker (1997) suggests that expressive writing supports mental and physical well-being by enabling individuals to process emotional upheaval.
Reflective writing also has a pedagogical dimension. Brookfield and Mezirow (1991) emphasize that reflection fosters critical thinking by prompting individuals to question assumptions, analyze social structures, and consider ethical implications.
2.1. Psychological Functions of Reflective Writing
Reflective writing has long been associated with emotional processing. It helps individuals transform chaotic emotional experiences into structured narratives, thereby reducing psychological distress. Various studies show that writing about traumatic or stressful events can improve emotional regulation and promote resilience.
2.1.1. Reflective Writing in Crisis and Trauma Contexts
During crises, reflective writing serves as a mechanism to externalize fear, confusion, and grief. Trauma scholars argue that articulating emotions through writing helps individuals regain a sense of agency and coherence.
2.1.2. Critical and Humanistic Dimensions
Reflective writing also holds moral and ethical significance. It encourages individuals to situate themselves ethically within crisis events, develop empathy toward victims, and challenge dehumanizing narratives.
Methodology
This study employed a qualitative design using an interpretive phenomenological approach. The dataset consisted of reflective writings produced by Iranian university students during the 12-day Iran–Israel conflict, collected through purposive sampling. Data were analyzed following Braun and Clarke's (2006) thematic analysis through iterative coding and theme development.
Results
Analysis yielded three primary thematic categories:
Psychological Processing
Participants used reflective writing to articulate shock, fear, sadness, and moral confusion. Writing provided emotional containment and helped regulate distress caused by constant media exposure.
Critical Learning
Reflective writings demonstrated increased awareness of media manipulation, political bias, and ethical complexities. Participants shifted from reactive emotions to deeper intellectual engagement.
Humanistic Empathy
A strong theme involved compassion for innocent civilians affected by the war. Writers emphasized shared humanity over political divisions.
Discussion
Findings support existing literature demonstrating that reflective writing promotes psychological well-being, cognitive clarity, and critical awareness. In the context of the Iran–Israel war, reflective writing helped individuals process overwhelming emotions while also fostering analytical and ethical engagement.
Conclusion
Reflective writing functions as both a psychological tool and an educational mechanism during crises. This study illustrates that reflective writing serves to process emotions, question political narratives, and cultivate deeper empathy. Integrating reflective writing into community and educational settings during crises can strengthen resilience and promote humanistic values.
Acknowledgments
The author extends appreciation to all individuals who shared their reflective texts during this critical period.
Keywords: Reflective Writing, Psychological Processing, Critical Learning, Human Crises, War.
Research Paper
family counselling
Sajad Sedaghati Rad; Yasser Rezapour; Zahra Jahanbakhshi
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
The rising rate of divorce has become a growing social and mental health concern, underscoring the need to identify the psychological factors that contribute to the distress experienced by couples on the verge of marital dissolution. Psychological distress—comprising ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
The rising rate of divorce has become a growing social and mental health concern, underscoring the need to identify the psychological factors that contribute to the distress experienced by couples on the verge of marital dissolution. Psychological distress—comprising symptoms of anxiety and depression—can function both as a predictor and a consequence of divorce. Therefore, identifying the protective factors or risk factors related to distress is essential for designing effective clinical and preventive interventions. One fundamental factor influencing adult mental health and interpersonal functioning is the quality of the family of origin, which is closely linked to attachment patterns, intimacy, and autonomy. Among interpersonal variables, the need for belonging is a basic human motivation, and unmet needs for belonging have repeatedly been associated with mental health problems. The present study investigates whether the need for belonging mediates the relationship between family-of-origin quality and psychological distress among men and women seeking divorce.
Literature Review
Prior research demonstrates that a healthy family-of-origin environment—characterized by emotional intimacy, cohesion, and autonomy—predicts marital satisfaction and reduces conflict (Beliad et al., 2014; Muraru & Turliuc, 2012). Other studies show that unmet belongingness needs are strongly associated with internalizing symptoms, anxiety, depression, and overall lower well-being (Verhagen et al., 2018). Furthermore, findings suggest that the family of origin shapes attachment styles and belongingness, which in turn influence adult psychological functioning (Hardy et al., 2015). Despite these findings, limited research has examined the mediating role of the need for belonging between family-of-origin experiences and psychological distress in divorce-seeking populations, justifying the present study, which aims to fill this gap.
Methodology
This descriptive–correlational study employed structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of all individuals seeking divorce who visited judiciary-approved counseling centers in Mashhad during the first half of 2023. A convenience sample of 300 participants (150 women, 150 men) was recruited.The study used the following instruments: The Family-of-Origin Scale (FOS; Hovestadt et al., 1985), the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10; Kessler et al., 2002), and the Need to Belong Scale (Kelly, 1999).
Data analysis included Pearson correlations and SEM using SPSS 25 and AMOS 24. Validity and reliability indices were assessed. The assumptions of normality, the absence of outliers, and no multicollinearity were met.
Results
The sample consisted of 300 participants with an equal gender distribution. The mean age was approximately 32.23 years, and the average duration of marriage was about 9.47 years. Correlational analyses indicated a significant negative association between family-of-origin quality and psychological distress (r = –0.37, p < .01), while the need to belong showed a significant positive association with distress (r = .40, p < .01). Structural equation modeling further demonstrated that the direct effect of family-of-origin quality on distress was significant and negative (β = –0.35, p < .001). Family-of-origin quality was also significantly associated with the need to belong (β = –0.34), and the need to belong, in turn, exerted a significant positive effect on distress (β = .28) (Fig 1). Bootstrapping results revealed that the indirect effect of family-of-origin quality on psychological distress through the need to belong was likewise significant and negative (indirect β ≈ –0.10, p < .001). Model fit indices (CFI = .992, RMSEA = .078, among others) indicated an acceptable fit, and the predictors together accounted for approximately 27% of the variance in psychological distress.
Figure 1. Standardized Path Coefficients
Need to Belong
Psychological Distress
Autonomy
Intimacy
Family of Origin
e3
e4
e1
.799
.759
-.344
.281
-.348
Discussion
The findings indicate that higher family-of-origin quality serves as a protective factor against psychological distress among divorce-seeking individuals. This relationship is partially mediated by the need to belong. In line with attachment theory and intergenerational models (such as Bowen’s framework), early family experiences shape interpersonal schemas, emotional security, and belongingness, which influence individuals’ vulnerability or resilience in later life when encountering major relational crises such as divorce. From a clinical perspective, these findings suggest that interventions aimed at strengthening the need to belong, addressing unmet relational needs, and processing family-of-origin experiences may help reduce distress and improve psychological outcomes among individuals undergoing divorce.
Conclusion
Both family-of-origin quality and the need to belong significantly predict psychological distress in individuals seeking divorce, with belongingness serving as a meaningful mediator. The study highlights the importance of developing counseling and therapeutic programs that foster belongingness and target unresolved family-of-origin issues. Future research using longitudinal designs, randomized samples, and cultural/gender-based comparisons is recommended to further refine these findings.
Keywords: Need to Belong, Family-of-Origin Quality, Psychological Distress, Divorce.
Research Paper
family counselling
Rahim Rabet; Ali Rezaeisharif; Hossein Qamari kivi
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Marriage is a fundamental institution that shapes societies and individuals (Harsono et al., 2024). A harmonious family is one in which there is intimacy between couples with effective communication patterns and minimum conflict (Musthof & Lutfia, 2024). However, ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Marriage is a fundamental institution that shapes societies and individuals (Harsono et al., 2024). A harmonious family is one in which there is intimacy between couples with effective communication patterns and minimum conflict (Musthof & Lutfia, 2024). However, recently, worrying trends have been reported in the field of marriage and the tendency to divorce; the divorce rate is increasing in most countries (Aami BandehGharaei, 2023; Sbara & Coan, 2017), which has also affected Iranian society in this regard (Khani, 2023; Jafari et al., 2021). Iran ranks fourth in the world in terms of divorce (Sarfarazi & Sadattabatabayi, 2023); therefore, interventions and training programs for couples in the field of marital skills seem necessary. Research has identified several problems for conflicting spouses, including controlling behaviors and deficits in communication patterns in couples (Salimi et al., 2024). Marital control is a variety of non-physical abusive behaviors used to control a partner (Lohmann et al., 2024). Given that controlling spouses lack effective communication skills, lack empathy skills, and have unconstructive communications (Xyrakis et al., 2024; Modirzare et al., 2021), this characteristic of spouses is linked to another variable called communication patterns. Communication patterns are the ways in which information, thoughts, and feelings are transmitted to and ultimately returned to both parties in a relationship (Zhang et al., 2024).
Experts attribute this critical situation partly to factors such as the lack of couples equipped with marital skills (Modirzare et al., 2021; Xyrakis et al., 2024). When such skills are taught to couples, it is referred to as marital enrichment programs. Research suggests that combining therapeutic approaches (i.e., eclecticism) is more effective (Wedding & Corsini, 2019).
By developing a marital skills enrichment package based on eclecticism, the present study presents various skills and interventions for conflicting couples. On the other hand, it aims to answer the question of whether the developed package is effective in improving marital control and communication patterns of conflicting spouses.
Literature Review
Controlling behavior was introduced in 2005 by Graham-Kevan and Archer (Başkan & Alkan, 2023). Concrete examples include one spouse trying to prevent the partner from meeting friends, restricting travel to and from the parents' house, insisting on knowing where his or her partner is at all times, determining what type of clothing his or her wife should wear, asking his or her permission before doing anything, being extremely pessimistic about his or her partner's infidelity (Aizpuru et al., 2021). A spouse's interference in their partner's use of cyberspace and social networks, and constant checking of text messages, contacts, and conversations on their mobile phone are also considered new indicators of marital controlling (Belotti et al., 2022).
A variety of communication patterns are displayed by spouses, ranging from constructive dialogue to uncompromising behavior (Omoboye et al., 2024). Spouses' awareness of different types of communication patterns can help them improve their married life and reduce marital tensions and conflicts (Wang, 2021). Theorists in the field of marital communication have identified many communication patterns, among which Christensen and Schenk (1991; as cited by Abdi Zarin & Sanei Taheri, 2010) divided communication patterns into three categories: 1. mutual constructive pattern, 2. mutual avoidance pattern, and 3. demand-withdraw pattern. Constructive and effective communication patterns are so important that some researchers believe that the ability of spouses to communicate effectively plays a vital role in marital adjustment and reducing marital conflicts (Krok et al., 2023).
Methodology
The present study was a developmental research in terms of objective and a mixed-methods study in terms of data collection method. In the qualitative part, the Delphi method was used for validation. The research design in the quantitative part is a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test–post-test design with a control group and a two-month follow-up phase. The statistical population of the Delphi section included all Iranian specialists in the fields of marriage, family, and couple counseling. Among them, 30 individuals were selected through purposive sampling method to be part of the Delphi expert panel. In the quantitative section, all couples referred to counseling centers in Zanjan comprised the statistical population of the present study, from which 50 couples, whose scores on the Graham-Kevan and Archer Controlling Behaviors Questionnaire (2005) and the Christensen and Salavi Communication Patterns Questionnaire (1984) were high, were selected through convenience sampling. They were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups (25 couples in each group). The experimental group received training based on the developed protocol for eight two-hour sessions, while the control group received no training. After completing the training sessions, both groups were evaluated by a posttest. The experimental group was re-evaluated after a two-month follow-up period. Data were analyzed using Kendall’s coefficient of agreement (W), univariate analysis of covariance, and the Bonferroni post hoc test in SPSS.
Results
In this qualitative research (Delphi method), the number of participants in the expert panel was 30; this panel reached a strong consensus in the fourth round. (see Table 1). The Delphi method used in this research consisted of four rounds. In the first round, based on the developed package, expert panel members extracted indicators. After collecting, organizing, classifying, analyzing, and reviewing the opinions, 36 indicators were finally developed.
Table 1. Comparison of Central Tendencies and Kendall’s Correlation Coefficient (W) in Three Delphi Stages
Round
Mod
Median
Mean
Standard Deviation
Kendall Value (W)
Significance Level
2nd
3
3
3.44
.77
.496
.000
3rd
4
4
4.09
.57
.856
.000
4th
6
5
4.74
.43
.894
.000
Descriptive indicators of marital control and communication patterns are included in Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive Indicators of the Marital Control Variable and Communication Patterns
Variable
Experimental Group
Control Group
Pretest
Posttest
Follow- up
Pretest
Posttest
Follow- up
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Marital Controlling
93.20
4.76
22.48
5.49
21.64
4.87
97.56
4.10
98.56
3.49
101.48
3.58
mutual Constructive pattern
-25.36
4.36
17.96
2.24
17.08
1.36
-25.32
3.24
-24.52
3.29
-24.04
2.89
mutual avoidance pattern
23.48
2.06
8.52
1.96
8.48
1.61
24.84
1.14
23.96
1.40
23.56
1.39
demand-withdraw pattern
32.56
3.55
8.56
1.53
8.24
1.36
31.52
2.74
30.76
2.47
30.60
2.27
Table 2 shows the descriptive indicators for the two groups across the three stages. As shown, the mean scores for marital controlling decreased sharply for the experimental group after the intervention and were maintained at follow-up, while the control group's scores remained high or increased slightly. Similarly, the communication pattern scores improved for the experimental group and were sustained at follow-up.
Regarding the variable of communication patterns, it can be said that the mutual constructive communication pattern in the experimental group improved compared to the control group and remained stable during the two-month follow-up. The experimental group's mutual avoidance communication pattern decreased and remained stable after two months. Finally, regarding the demand-withdraw pattern, it is important to note that the average scores of both groups were high when participating in training sessions, and this communication pattern also decreased after applying the experimental variable in the experimental group and remained stable after two months; while there was no decrease for the control group.
The results of the analysis of covariance showed that, after controlling for the pretest effect, there was a significant difference between the couples in the experimental and control groups in terms of marital control (p < 0.05, F = 2977.440), mutual constructive pattern (p < 0.05, F =74.851), mutual avoidance pattern (p < 0.05, F =11.167), and demand-withdraw pattern (p < 0.05, F =1545.799). These results indicate that the developed training package has been able to improve the marital controlling of couples in the experimental group, increase their mutually constructive communication pattern, and reduce their mutual avoidance and demand-withdraw communication patterns.
Conclusion
The present study aimed to develop and validate a marital skills package based on an eclectic approach to reduce marital controlling behaviors and improve communication patterns for couples experiencing conflict. The results of the qualitative study indicated that the present educational package possesses good content validity, and the expert panel reached a strong level of agreement in this regard. This finding is consistent with the findings of studies that have shown that enrichment and treatment packages based on an eclectic approach have high validity and effectiveness (Amirbeik et al., 2021; Beyrami & Azhideh, 2025; Jalalvand et al., 2023; Kavehei Sedeh et al., 2022; Mehrjou & Fatehizadeh, 2023; Mostajeran et al., 2021; Namdarppour et al., 2023; Pirsaghi, 2024; Tashakori & Sedrpoushan, 2023).
In the quantitative part, the effectiveness of the package developed as a nine-session training on marital control and communication patterns was examined. The data analysis showed that the marital skills package based on eclecticism could reduce the level of marital control of conflicting couples in the experimental group compared to the control group; it transformed their unconstructive communication patterns into constructive communication patterns. The findings of this study are consistent with those of studies that have examined the approaches of strategic model, intergenerational theory, structural family therapy, schema therapy, McMaster Family Function Model, Gottman Couple Therapy and Satir Approach on improving marital control and communication patterns of conflicting spouses and have been confirmed (Modirzare et al., 2021; Aalami et al., 2019; Asghari Ganji & Tabaripour, 2023; Deylami et al., 2021; Genç, 2021; Omidi et al., 2022; Rahespar et al., 2022; Salehi et al., 2024; Saniei, 2021; Kiadarbandsari et al., 2022).
Acknowledgments
The researchers would like to appreciate all participants for participating in the study.
Keywords: Eclecticism, Communication Patterns, Delphi Method, Marital Controlling, Marital Skills, Validation of Psycho-Educational Package.
Research Paper
Psychotherapy
Nima Fereidani; zahra Naghsh; Yaser Madani
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Students, as the future human capital and builders of society, play a pivotal role in the development of their country, making academic success essential for fulfilling this role (Ghadiri, 2017). Achieving academic success largely depends on students’ beliefs ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Students, as the future human capital and builders of society, play a pivotal role in the development of their country, making academic success essential for fulfilling this role (Ghadiri, 2017). Achieving academic success largely depends on students’ beliefs about their own abilities, known as academic self-efficacy, which reflects an individual’s confidence in successfully performing educational tasks and significantly influences motivation, self-regulation, and overall academic performance (Bong, 2001; Bedel, 2016). Academic self-efficacy also affects how students interact with the learning environment, engage in educational activities, and overcome academic challenges. Alongside self-efficacy, academic engagement—which encompasses cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions—shapes students’ commitment, focus, and participation in learning (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Pintrich, 2003). Evidence indicates that brief interventions, particularly group-based single-session therapy, can effectively enhance both academic self-efficacy and engagement, providing rapid, cost-effective, and accessible support for students (Talmon, 1990; Dryden, 2018; Corey et al., 2014). However, research on single-session interventions at the university level remains limited. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of group-based single-session therapy on students’ academic self-efficacy and on the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of their academic engagement.
Research Question
Does participation in Single-Session Therapy (SST) result in statistically significant increases in self-efficacy and academic engagement among university students compared to those who do not receive the intervention?
Literature Review
Academic self-efficacy has been consistently recognized as a crucial determinant of student success. Bandura (2001) defines self-efficacy as individuals’ beliefs in their ability to perform assigned tasks, influencing motivation, goal-setting, and persistence. Empirical evidence shows that higher self-efficacy predicts greater effort, resilience, and academic achievement (Bedel, 2016; Zander et al., 2018; Fouladi, Kajbaf, & Qomrani, 2016).
Academic engagement, comprising cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions, is another key factor affecting student outcomes (Walker & Pierce, 2014; Rodriguez & Boutakidis, 2013). Cognitive engagement reflects investment in learning and problem-solving, emotional engagement encompasses expectations, values, and affective responses, and behavioral engagement involves participation, persistence, and active involvement in academic tasks (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Pintrich, 2000, 2003).
Short-term interventions, particularly single-session therapy (SST), have emerged as effective approaches to enhance self-efficacy and engagement. SST emphasizes clients’ inner resources and capacity for change, independent of rigid theoretical frameworks, and has been shown to reduce academic stress, foster social skills, and increase motivation (Bloom, 2001; Hoyt & Talmon, 2014; Dryden, 2018). Its brevity and accessibility make SST a practical and resource-efficient strategy for higher education, supporting student learning and overall academic success.
Methodology
This quasi-experimental study utilized a pre-test and post-test design with a control group to examine the effects of Single-Session Therapy (SST) on undergraduate students at the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Tehran, during the first semester of the 2023–2024 academic year (1402–1401 SH). Eighteen students meeting the inclusion criteria—aged 18–25 and willing to participate in a 2-hour group session—were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group (n = 9 per group), while students who were engaged in concurrent psychological interventions were excluded. The SST intervention consisted of a single 2-hour session conducted on a weekend at 2:00 PM, which was audio-recorded with participants’ informed consent. Pre-test assessments were administered to both groups prior to the intervention, followed by the SST session for the experimental group, while the control group received no intervention. Post-test assessments were subsequently conducted for both groups.
Conclusion
This study investigated the effectiveness of single-session therapy (SST) on academic self-efficacy and the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of academic engagement in undergraduate students. Results indicated that SST significantly enhanced students’ self-efficacy, as well as their cognitive and behavioral engagement; however, no significant effect was found on emotional engagement. By emphasizing individual strengths, leveraging prior experiences, and fostering social and collaborative skills, SST supported better management of academic stress and responsibilities. Overall, SST appears to be a brief, accessible, and effective intervention for enhancing academic motivation and self-efficacy, with potential benefits for learning outcomes and retention. These findings highlight the value of incorporating short-term, resource-efficient counseling interventions within higher education settings.
Keywords: Single Session Therapy, Academic Engagement, Academic Self-Efficacy, Students.
Research Paper
mental health
Mohammad Ganji; Narges Nikkhah ghamsari; Amin Heydarian; Masoud Ghaffari
Abstract
Extended Abstract:IntroductionWithout visual perception, an individual's perception of their surrounding society will be different. This difference can lead to emotional, behavioral, and social problems such as incompatibility, limited social activity, lack of love and intimacy towards others, depression, ...
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Extended Abstract:IntroductionWithout visual perception, an individual's perception of their surrounding society will be different. This difference can lead to emotional, behavioral, and social problems such as incompatibility, limited social activity, lack of love and intimacy towards others, depression, and a weak sense of self-worth, which can threaten their mental health. Based on social cognitive approaches to health, mental health is not just a biological or psychological phenomenon but also has social dimensions. The main objective of this study is to investigate the theoretical and empirical relationship between social support and mental health among blind and visually impaired individuals in Kashan city. Accordingly, the questions of this research are: What is the level of mental health among blind and visually impaired individuals in Kashan city? To what extent are blind and visually impaired individuals in Kashan city receiving various types of social support? And can social support have an impact on the mental health of blind and visually impaired individuals in Kashan city? In general, the hypotheses of this study are that there is a positive relationship between “family support”, “friend support”, “significant other support”, and “social support (total dimensions)” and “mental health” among blind and visually impaired individuals.Literature ReviewPrevious empirical studies have shown a relationship between the concepts of social support and the mental health of individuals. According to sociological approaches, supportive actions from family, friends, and others can significantly enhance the social aspect of mental health, thereby leading to emotional and psychological well-being. A review of previous studies in Iran indicates that despite the high prevalence of research on mental health, there has been limited empirical research on the mental health of blind and visually impaired individuals. Furthermore, the existing studies have primarily focused on psychological analyses and explanations from a micro-level perspective, while paying less attention to the social determinants of mental health for individuals with visual impairments.MethodologyThe survey method was employed to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. The target population included all blind and visually impaired individuals who were members of the blind community in Kashan city during the data collection period (summer 2022), totaling 652 individuals. Using Sample Power software, a sample size of 211 was determined and selected. The research instrument was a researcher-made questionnaire. After establishing face validity, reliability was estimated using Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability coefficients. For this purpose, 35 questionnaires were used in the preliminary test phase. Since the obtained coefficients for all variables were above 0.7, it can be concluded that the questionnaire used in this study was a reliable and valid tool.ResultsThe descriptive findings indicate that the mean of the variables “family support”, “significant other support,” and “mental health” were higher than the median, indicating that these variables are reported at an above-average level. However, the mean of the variables “friend support”, and “social support (total dimensions)” were lower than the median, indicating a below-average situation for these variables. The results of hypothesis testing show that there is a significant and direct relationship between the variables of “family support”, “friend support”, “significant other support”, and “social support (total dimensions)”, on the one hand, and “mental health”, on the other, at a confidence level of 99%. Moreover, the results of multiple regression analysis indicate that three independent variables out of four that had a significant correlation with mental health in the correlation test are present in the regression equation. These variables are, in order, “friend support”, “family support”, and “significant other support”. Overall, considering the standardized beta coefficients, the effect of “friend support” (β = .38) was the strongest, followed by “family support” (β = .23), and “significant other support” (β = .16). Therefore, the variable “friend support” has the highest direct effect, and the variable “significant other support” has the lowest direct effect among the significant independent variables in the regression model.To develop the empirical model, a structural equation modeling approach was used. In this model, the variables of “family support” (with 4 items); “friend support” (with 4 items); “significant other support” (with 4 items); “social support” (with 12 items from all dimensions); “emotional well-being” (with 3 items); “mental well-being” (with 6 items); “social well-being” (with 5 items); and “mental health” (with 14 items from all dimensions) were present, and most of the factor loadings of the items exceeded 0.5 (Figure 1). Then, using the bootstrapping method, the significance of the estimated path coefficients for each variable was examined.Figure 1. Structural Model of the Relationship Between Social Support and Mental Health Table 1. Evaluation of the Internal Model of the Research Based on the Significance of Direct EffectsVariablesPath coefficientsTSig.ResultFriend support0.3635.9890.000ConfirmedFamily support0.2233.0660.002ConfirmedSignificant other support0.1872.4100.016ConfirmedResults show that all path coefficients are significant. Additionally, the estimate of effect size (f2) and predictive power (Q2) of the structural model indicate that the effect size of the variable “friend support” is moderate (0.175) and other variables have a low effect size. Furthermore, the predictive power of the model is moderate with a value of 0.164. Finally, the general fit index of the model (SRMR) is 0.09, indicating a good fit.ConclusionOverall, the evidence obtained confirms all research hypotheses, which is consistent with previous studies and theoretical discussions. In particular, the variable of social support is of great importance. This indicates that friends, through their tangible support in providing suggestions and information, and by creating a sense of reassurance, strengthen the individual's sense of worth and help improve their mental health. This can be rooted in the tendency of visually impaired individuals towards intra-group interactions and friendships, especially among members of their community. In other words, here we are faced with the link and cohesion of visually impaired individuals and individuals with low vision as a factor in mutual understanding. Therefore, the results suggest that social support and peer support have a significant impact on this group.AcknowledgmentsThe researchers of this article would like to express their utmost gratitude and appreciation to the blind and visually impaired community of Kashan city, as well as all questionnaire respondents and participants in this study.Keywords: Mental Health, Social Support, Family Support, Friend Support, Significant Others Support.
Research Paper
Psychotherapy
Alireza Attariani; Bahramali Ganbari Hashemabadi; mahmood azadi
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Death thinking is defined as concern about death. Therefore, death-thinking individuals are aware of their own inevitable death and concerned about facing it. It can be said that death thinking is the way people deal with death and the way they understand it: both ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Death thinking is defined as concern about death. Therefore, death-thinking individuals are aware of their own inevitable death and concerned about facing it. It can be said that death thinking is the way people deal with death and the way they understand it: both are related to the lifestyle and death anxiety. According to Terror Management Theory, when thoughts of death are consciously focused on, the person's lifestyle becomes more oriented toward meaning, personal values, and authentic relationships, and as a result, psychological distress such as death anxiety is reduced. On the other hand, when thoughts of death are on the periphery of individuals’ mental life, their lives are more prone to dysfunctional relationships and psychological disorders. Furthermore, the fear of thinking about death in people with death anxiety means accepting the lack of control over death. In cases where people face death dynamically and constructively, their depression, anxiety, and despair are reduced and their lifestyle is improved. Moreover, anxiety and inefficient lifestyle can be seen as reactions to the issue of death. Due to the high psychological pressure felt as a result of anticipating imminent death, some prisoners show maladaptive and destructive behaviors such as using drugs and strong painkillers, self-harm, and conflict, the consequences of which lead to an increase in depression, aggression, despair, self-harm, and other harmful behaviors for themselves and other prisoners. Considering the role of constructive death thinking on the meaning of life, and its relationship with lifestyle, conducting a study on the effectiveness of death-thinking-based intervention is important. Death-thinking psychotherapy assumes that the real, personal and realistic encounter with the phenomenon of death can lead to the promotion and improvement of the lifestyle of prisoners. This study, therefore, aimed at investigating the effectiveness of death-thinking treatment on death anxiety and lifestyle of prisoners.
Methodology
This research employed a quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test control group design. The statistical population consisted of all male prisoners (N = 825) residing at the Counseling Center No. 3 of the Central Prison of Mashhad. From this population, 24 prisoners who met the inclusion criteria were selected and randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental and a control group (12 participants in each group). Then, all participants completed the questionnaires in the pre-test stage, including the Laali et al.'s Lifestyle Questionnaire (LSQ; 2013) and Templer's Death Anxiety Questionnaire (TDAS; 1970). The members of the experimental group received 16 sessions of the Death-Thinking-Based Psychotherapy while the members of the control group did not receive any intervention. After the intervention period, the participants of both groups were asked again to complete the study questionnaires for the post-test stage. Finally, the collected data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANCOVA) in SPSS-21.
Results
The ANCOVA analysis showed a significant difference between the lifestyle of the members of the experimental and control groups. Therefore, it can be concluded that the intervention based on death-thinking significantly improved the lifestyle of prisoners in the experimental group compared to the lifestyle of the members of the control group (p<0.05). Moreover, the between-subjects effects test for death anxiety showed a significant F value, indicating a significant difference between the experimental and control groups. Accordingly, the intervention based on death-thinking reduced prisoners’ death anxiety (P<0.05).
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics (Mean and Std. Deviation) of Variables’ Pre-test and Post-test Scores
Variable
Experimental Group
Control Group
Mean
Std. Deviation
Mean
Std. Deviation
Lifestyle
Pre-test
120.26
20.64
131.13
22.30
Post-test
140.66
21.01
128.66
23.22
Death anxiety
Pre-test
9.66
1.75
7.13
2.89
Post-test
6.73
2.65
8.20
2.36
Table 2. Univariate ANCOVA: Experimental vs. Control Group Comparison on Prisoner’s Lifestyle
Source
Sum of Squares
Deg. of Freedom
Mean Square
F
Significance
Eta Coefficient
Pretest
3835.90
1
3835.90
49.21
0.000
0.65
Group
3492.20
1
3492.20
44.79
0.000
0.62
Error
719.04
27
26.63
Total
2504.96
29
Table 3. Univariate ANCOVA: Experimental vs. Control Group Comparison on Prisoner’s Death Anxiety
Source
Sum of Squares
Deg. of Freedom
Mean Square
F
Significance
Eta Coefficient
Pretest
50.58
1
50.58
10.77
0.003
0.28
Group
48.10
1
48.10
10.24
0.003
0.27
Error
126.74
27
4.69
Total
193.46
29
Discussion and Conclusion
This study aimed to explore the effectiveness of the treatment based on death-thinking on the lifestyle, and death anxiety among prisoners. The results showed that death-thinking-based treatment significantly improved lifestyle and reduced the level of death anxiety. The evidence confirms the practical validity of the treatment based on death thinking. The clinical observations showed that these impacts were evident in areas such as motivation and goals. The observations also showed that the prisoners who received the treatment based on death-thinking changed their internal and external goals. This finding is in line with the findings of Hashemi and Qolizadeh (2024). Many people can use the findings of this study, including those who seek a better lifestyle, and the psychologists whose clients are in situations with imminent death such as those sentenced to death or awaiting imminent death in prisons, or patients with incurable diseases such as cancer and AIDS.
Ethical Considerations
Before the intervention, the general objectives of the study were explained to the participants and their informed consent was obtained, and the confidentiality of their identity was assured. This research was approved under the ethics code IR.IAU.BOJNOURD.REC.14010010.
Keywords: Lifestyle, Death Anxiety, Death Thinking, Prisoner.
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